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Astronaut Selection and Training
Astronauts practice for working in space in NASA's Weightless Environment Training Facility (WETF), a large water tank that contains a mockup of the space shuttle orbiter payload bay and various payloads. The astronauts are assisted here by SCUBA equipped divers.
The 21st century promises the challenge for humans to live and work in space. The achievments of scientists, engineers, technicians, and specialists who will build and operate the Space Station are the legacy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) many years of experience in selecting and training astronauts to work on the frontier of space.
History of Astronaut Selection
Man's scope of space exploration has broadened since the first U.S. manned space flight in 1961. But the Nation can never forget the original seven space pilots who focused our vision on the stars. In 1959, NASA asked the U.S. military services to list their members who met specific qualifications. In seeking its first astronauts, NASA required jet aircraft flight experience and engineering training. Height could be no more than 5 feet 11 inches because of limited cabin space available in the Mercury space capsule being designed. After many series of intense physical and psychological screenings, NASA selected seven men from an original field of 500 candidates. They were Air Force Captains L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Virgil "Gus" Grissom, and Donald K. "Deke" Slayton; Marine Lieutenant Colonel John H. Glenn, Jr., Navy Lieutenant M. Scott Carpenter and Navy Lieutenant Commanders Walter M. Schirra, Jr., and Alan B. Shepard, Jr.
Each man flew in Project Mercury except Slayton, who was grounded for medical reasons. Sixteen years later, Slayton was an American crewmember of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, the world's first international manned space flight.
Nine pilot astronauts were chosen in September 1962, and fourteen more were selected in October 1963. By then, prime emphasis had shifted away from flight experience and toward superior academic qualifications. In October 1964, applications were invited on the basis of educational background alone. These were the scientist astronauts, so called because the 400-plus applicants who met minimum requirements had a doctorate or equivalent experience in the natural sciences, medicine, or engineering. Of these 400 applicants, six were selected in June 1965.
In April 1966,19 pilot astronauts were named and in August 1967,11 scientist astronauts were added to the program. When the Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory program was cancelled in mid-1969, seven astronaut trainees transferred to NASA.
Shuttle Era Astronaut Candidate Recruiting
The first group of astronaut candidates for the Space Shuttle Program was selected in January 1 978. In July of that year, the 35 candidates began a rigorous training and evaluation period at NASA's Johnson Space Center (JSC), Houston, Texas, to qualify for subsequent assignment for future Space Shuttle flight crews. This group of 20 mission specialists and 15 pilots completed training and went from astronaut candidate status to astronaut (active status) in August 1979. Six of the 35 were women and four were minorities.
Six groups of pilots and mission specialists have been added since then: 19 in 1980,17 in 1984,13 in 1985,15 in 1987, 23 in 1990, and 19 in 1992.
The Odds
NASA chooses its astronauts from an increasingly diverse pool of applicants that, 'looks like America". From thousands of applications from all over the world, approximately 100 men and women are chosen for an intensive astronaut candidate training program every two years. "I cannot imagine a better career. I've done more than I could ever have imagined. I'm thankful that I've been at the right place at the right time," said Kenneth S. Reightler.
The study time involved is no more lengthy than that of any other professional career requiring graduate/post-graduate study. If becoming an astronaut is a dream, held long and steadfast, than this labor will be one of love.
Early Preparation
The preparation begins in elementary school. It is here that the foundations are laid down and then built upon," said Colonel Charlie Bolden, Deputy Commandant of Midshipmen at the US Naval Academy. "Start with the basics and get them down first...you can't do anything without math and science." Students should read everything they can get their hands on about astronauts, Space in general, and their field of interest in particular.
Other skills Bolden felt were integral to becoming an astronaut were: knowing how and being able to work as a team player; understanding and appreciating both your ethnic, cultural and American history; and maintaining a grasp on current events.
Bolden does not hold the opinion that American young people are less equipped than their foreign counterparts. "I listen to people say that American Students can't do this and can't do that. I don't buy into or accept that at all. Kids are just as sharp as when I came up. It's just motivation that may be lacking," Bolden said.
It is also interesting to note that out of 195 former and present astronauts, 123 have taken part in Scouting--or 64 percent. Because of the direct mission that scouting fulfills it would help to develop those skills.
College
In high school, it is particularly important for the student to earn the best possible grades for standardized test scores (SAT and/or ACT). It is then time to make some decisions as to the specific direction of study, such as, engineering, biological or physical science, or mathematics.
What next after students graduate from high school? "If you do things thinking that, 'This will look good on a resume' or I'm not going to like it but it'll help me get selected someday,' you will do yourself a disservice. You're not going to do as well as you would at something in which you're interested," said Reightler.
The "minimum degree requirement" for an astronaut is a bachelor's from an accredited institution. Three years of related increasingly responsible professional experience must follow that degree.
Most astronauts to date, however, continued with career and/or education to the post-graduate levels and were able to substitute education for all or part of their work experience requirement. Admittedly though, being selected could be a couple years off at the very least. In the mean time you'll need to eat and pay the rent. Besides, more experience can only bode well for the applicant in the long-term.
NASA contributes funds to 51 colleges and universities through its Space Grant Consortia. By attending these institutions you are ensured that the curriculum for Space programs offered will conform with guidelines NASA finds acceptable. To receive a list of the consortia schools write to: NASA Education Division, Code FEO2, 300 E Street S.W., Washington, D.C. 20546.
Many schools offer degrees in technical fields, math, and science. Check with a guidance/college counselor or a good college directory.
Whatever school you do attend--one aspect remains the same--do the very best that you possibly can. You will need the grades to graduate into a good Master of Science program. Obviously you will need to center your curriculum around science and the technologies. There are many degree options.
To communicate--both written and verbally is also vital to working in the Space program. To know history is important to success--not only as an astronaut but as a citizen. Bolden (who had to wake up extra early to attend a class in basic Russian language to prepare for his mission with a cosmonaut in February) suggests that every American should be--at the very least--bilingual.
"Space is a multinational and multicultural-cultural operation. Working with Russian cosmonauts is very difficult if astronauts don't know anything about Russian culture and their history as a people", said Bolden.
Internships/Co-ops
During university study, as soon as students arrive on campus they should go to the co-operative and recruitment offices to explore the possibilities of an internship or work/study position to gain vital experience necessary to be marketable. Students who did not explore career possibilities until their senior year could miss this opportunity.
"There isn't one particular type of work experience that NASA is looking for. NASA--like any other employer--wants to know how well a person has done. If you come from a research background, they'd look at published work in technical journals, lecturing or TA experience, and also any awards that you may have won," said Dr. Ellen Ochoa Mission Specialist, and the first Hispanic woman in Space. "Everyone should have summer jobs. You need some sort of experience."
This will also help you to understand what the particular companies are looking for in terms of hiring policies and experience levels. These students are often offered jobs either when their internship is completed or upon graduation.
Application
Once the student is qualified on paper, it is now time to send in US Government Application Form 171 to the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. There it will be reviewed and ranked according to height considerations (at least 58.5"), experience and expertise (i.e.: geologists, physicists, chemists, biologists etc.). Much like other application processes, aspiring astronauts compete with an average of 4,014 other applicants for an average of 20 slots that open up every two years.
These applications go through another round of ranking and rating by more stringent requirements in order to eliminate further applicants. From an average of 4,014 applicants, an average of 118 are asked to come to the JSC and undergo one week of interviews and medical examinations and orientation.
Selection Criteria
Ochoa noted that the Astronaut Selection Board (ASB) is looking for people who have done very well in a technical field. A candidate should make sure that they have sterling recommendations-- especially from undergraduate and graduate school professors that can attest to your problem solving abilities, communicability with others and your ability to work well in a team.
The ASB interviews each person and assigns them a rating based on: experience and potential, motivation, ability to function as a member of a team, communicative abilities, and adaptability. Some applicants do not possess the required interpersonal skills and other requisite characteristics for the position and are rejected solely on that basis.
A significant number of applicants do not meet medical standards and still others withdraw after gaining complete understanding of the job. Based on information collected during this investigation, ASB will choose its final candidates and pass that recommendation on the NASA Administrator who will make the final pick. Once selected, candidates begin a rigorous training program.
Selection and Training for the Future
In the future, the United States with its international partners Japan, Canada, and the European Space Agency, will operate a man-tended Space Station. From that orbiting depot, humans will continue their journeys to the Moon and Mars. As these plans become reality, the need for qualified space flight professionals will increase.
To respond to these needs, NASA accepts applications for the Astronaut Candidate Program on a continuous basis. Candidates are selected as needed, normally every 2 years, for pilot and mission specialist categories. Both civilian and military personnel are considered for the program. Civilians may apply at any time. Military personnel must apply through their parent service and be nominated by their service to NASA.
The astronaut candidate selection process was developed to select highly qualified individuals for human space programs. For mission specialists and pilot astronaut candidates, the education and experience requirements are at least a bachelor's degree from an accredited institution in engineering, biological science, physical science, or mathematics. Three years of related, progressively responsible professional experience must follow the degree. An advanced degree is desirable and may be substituted for all or part of the experience requirement (i.e., master's degree = 1 year of work experience, doctoral degree = 3 years of experience).
Pilot astronaut applicants must also meet the following requirements prior to submitting an application:
(1) At least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time in jet aircraft; flight test experience is highly desirable.
(2) Ability to pass a NASA Class I space physical, which is similar to a military or civilian Class I flight physical, and includes the following specific standards for vision: distance visual acuity - 20/50 or better uncorrected, correctable to 20/20, each eye.
(3) Height between 64 and 76 inches.
Mission specialists have similar requirements, except that the qualifying physical is a NASA Class II space physical, which is similar to a military or civilian Class ll flight physical and includes the following specific standards for vision: distance visual acuity - 20/150 or better uncorrected, correctable to 20/20, each eye.
The application package may be obtained by writing to the Astronaut Selection Office, Mail Code AHX, Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058-3696.
Applicants who meet the basic qualifications are evaluated by discipline panels during a week-long process of personal interviews, thorough medical evaluations, and orientation. The panel's recommendations are based on the applicant's education, training, and experience as well as unique qualifications and skills. Because several hundred applicants fulfill the requirements, the final selection is based largely on personal interviews. Astronauts are expected to be team players and highly skilled generalists with just the right amount of individuality and self-reliance to be effective crewmembers.
Selected applicants are designated astronaut candidates and are assigned to the astronaut office at Johnson Space Center for a 1 -year training and evaluation period. During this period, candidates participate in the astronaut training program designed to develop the knowledge and skills required for formal mission training upon selection for a flight and are assigned technical or scientific responsibilities. However, selection as a candidate does not ensure selection as an astronaut.
Final selection is based on satisfactory completion of the 1-year program. Civilian candidates who successfully complete the training and evaluation and are selected as astronauts are expected to remain with NASA for at least 5 years. Successful military candidates are detailed to NASA for a specified tour of duty.
Salaries for civilian astronaut candidates are based on the Federal Government's General Schedule pay scales for grades GS-11 (approximately ,000.) status and top off at GS-14 (approximately ,000), and are set in accordance with each individual's academic achievements and experience.
Drawbacks
As with any other career, being an astronaut has drawbacks. One commonly shared among astronauts, is the lack of time--for family and with the work load. "With this job you could work 24 hours a day, seven days a week and still not get everything done. You have to strike a balance--that is the key," said Reightler. "There can be long hours that are unpredictable. Travel is involved especially during the busiest times; three months before and two months after a launch," agreed Ochoa.
The work is sometimes long and arduous and it is not unusual for a candidate to arrive at work at 7:30 a.m. and not return home until after 11:00 p.m. "When you have a spouse and you don't see the Sun on them...that gets tired pretty fast," said Bolden. "But these are hurdles that you have to deal with in any relationship in any career," said Ochoa adding, "When you know its only for a certain time frame and it'll get better after a while, then its easier to handle. Its such a good job...you don't mind putting in the extra time. My husband and I work it out...but that's a problem working couples face everywhere."
Most people would consider being a astronaut a high-risk occupation and with many astronauts going home to a spouse, children, or both, it would be reasonable to think that the fear and anxiety of those risks would constantly be on their minds. "Not so," said the three astronauts. "We train for all different kinds of scenarios--most of which aren't very good. When you have a pretty good idea of what you should be doing in an emergency, it tends to reduce those emotions," said Ochoa.
If the pilot/commander position is the goal then the applicant must also be prepared to log in at least 1,000 hours of flight time in command of a jet aircraft prior to consideration. Most of the current and former pilot/commander positions have been filled historically by men who have served or are currently active in the United States Armed Forces. There are only a few exceptions. During training all crew members train aboard a T-38 jet. The controls are identical to that of the Space Shuttle and therefore, the jet can be used as a flight simulator either on the ground or in actual flight.
Keep in mind that these are the bare minimum requirements. "The one thing [astronauts at NASA] have in common is the way that they got here--not by all taking the same path but by seeking out the things that they found interesting and doing them with great gusto-- that's what works!" Reightler said.
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SPACE SHUTTLE CREW POSITIONS
Commander/Pilot Astronauts
Pilot astronauts serve as both Space Shuttle commanders and pilots. During flight, the commander has onboard responsibility for the vehicle, crew, mission success, and safety of flight. The pilot assists the commander in controlling and operating the vehicle and may assist in the deployment and retrieval of satellites using the remote manipulator system (RMS), referred to as the robot arm or mechanical arm.
Mission Specialist Astronauts
Mission specialist astronauts work with the commander and the pilot and have overall responsibility for coordinating Shuttle operations in the following areas: Shuttle systems, crew activity planning, consumables usage, and experimen/payload operations. Mission specialists are trained in the details of the Orbiter onboard systems, as well as the operational characteristics, mission requirements/ objectives, and supporting equipment/systems for each of the experiments conducted on their assigned missions. Mission specialists perform extravehicular activities (EVAs), or spacewalks, operate the remote manipulator system, and are responsible for payloads and specific experiment operations.
Payload Specialists
Payload specialists are persons other than NASA astronauts (including foreign nationals) who have specialized onboard duties; they may be added to Shuttle crews if activities that have unique requirements are involved and more than the minimum crew size of five is needed.
First consideration for additional crewmembers is given to qualified NASA mission specialists. When payload specialists are required they are nominated by NASA, the foreign sponsor, or the designated payload sponsor. In the case of NASA or NASA-related payloads, the nominations are based on the recommendations of the appropriate Investigator Working Group (IWG). Although payload specialists are not part of the Astronaut Candidate Program, they must have the appropriate education and training related to the payload or experiment. All applicants must meet certain physical requirements and must pass NASA space physical examinations with varying standards depending on classification.
For information about opportunities in this field, write to NASA Headquarters, Attn: Code OST-5, Washington, DC 20546. If you are not a citizen of the United States, you may wish to contact the appropriate government agency within your own country
Astronaut Candidate Training
Astronaut candidates receive training at JSC near Houston, Texas. They attend classes on Shuttle systems, in basic science and technology: mathematics, geology, meteorology, guidance and navigation, oceanography, orbital dynamics, astronomy, physics, and materials processing are among the subjects. Candidates also receive training in parachute jumping, land and sea survival training, scuba diving, and space suits.
Candidates are also exposed to the problems associated with high (hyperbaric) and low (hypobaric) atmospheric pressures in the altitude chambers and learn to deal with emergencies associated with these conditions.
In addition, astronaut candidates are given exposure to the microgravity of space flight. A modified KC-135 jet aircraft produces periods of weightlessness for 20 seconds each time it dives from an altitude of 35,000 to 24,000 feet. During this brief period, astronauts experience the feeling of microgravity. The aircraft then returns to the original altitude and the sequence is repeated up to 40 times in a day.
Pilot astronauts maintain flying proficiency by flying 15 hours per month in NASA's fleet of 2-seat T-38 jets; they build up jet aircraft hours and also practice Orbiter landings in these jets. Mission Specialist astronauts fly a minimum of 4 hours per month.
Astronaut Formal Training
The astronauts begin their formal space transportation system training program during their year of candidacy by reading manuals and by taking computer-based training lessons on the various Orbiter systems ranging from propulsion to environmental.
The next step in the training process is the single systems trainer (SST). Each astronaut is accompanied by an instructor who helps in the learning process about the operations of each Orbiter subsystem using checklists similar to those found on a mission. The checklists contain information on normal system operations and corrective actions for malfunctions. The astronauts are trained in the SSTs to operate each system, to recognize malfunctions, and to perform corrective actions.
Following the SST portion of the training program, the astronauts begin training in the complex Shuttle Mission Simulators (SMSs). The SMS provides training in all areas of Shuttle vehicle operations and in all systems tasks associated with the major flight phases: prelaunch, ascent, orbit operations, entry, and landing. The orbit training includes payload operation, payload deployment and retrieval, maneuvers, and rendezvous. Two simulators, a fixed base and a motion base, are used to train the astronauts.
The fixed base crew station is used for both specific mission/payload training and launch descent and landing training. It is the only trainer with complete fore and aft consoles, including an RMS console. A digital image generation system provides visual cues for out-the-window scenes of the entire mission, e.g., the Earth, stars, payloads, the landing runway. Missions can be simulated literally from launch to landing.
The motion base crew station is used to train pilots and commanders in the mission phases of launch, descent, and landing. Motion cues are provided by the 6-degrees-offreedom motion system which also allows the flight deck to be rotated 90 degrees to simulate lift-off and ascent.
Astronauts begin their training in the SMS using generic training software until they are assigned to a particular mission, approximately 10 months before flight. Once they are assigned to a flight, astronauts train on a flight simulator until the actual flight-specific training software is delivered 11 weeks before the mission.
During this last 11 weeks, the astronauts also train with the flight controllers in the Mission Control Center (MCC). The SMS and MCC are linked by computer in the same way the Orbiter and MCC are linked during an actual mission. The astronauts and flight controllers learn to work as a team solving problems and working nominal and contingency mission timelines. Total hours in the SMS for the astronauts, after flight assignment, is about 300 hours.
In parallel with the SMS training there are several other part-task trainers that are used to prepare astronauts for Shuttle missions. These trainers are in varying degrees of fidelity and each serve a particular purpose.
The Weightless Environment Training Facility (WETF) is used to train astronauts for EVAs. The WETF is a large water tank which contains a mockup of the Orbiter payload bay and various payloads. Astronauts wear extravehicular mobility units, or spacesuits, in the water and are made neutrally buoyant to neither rise nor fall in the tank. This reduces the sensation of gravity and provides a very useful simulation for learning firsthand about working in the space environment.
Several full-scale mockups and trainers are also used to train astronauts. The full fuselage trainer is a full-sized plywood orbiter mockup with nonfunctional mid-deck and flight deck, and full-scale payload bay. It is used for onboard systems orientation and habitability training. Astronauts practice meal preparation, equipment stowage, trash management, use of cameras, and experiment familiarization. This trainer is also used for emergency egress training after Shuttle landings.
The crew compartment trainer is a mockup of the forward section of the orbiter crew station, without a payload bay, that can be tilted vertically. It is used to train for onorbit habitability procedures and also emergency pad egress and bailout operations. The crew stations of both trainers are similar.
The manipulator development facility is a full-scale mockup of the payload bay with full-scale
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